Witchcraft Accusations in the Tarim Basin: Cases from the Kharoṣṭhī Documents Discovered at Caḍota (the Niya Ruins)

Abstract

The Niya documents from the Tarim Basin include correspondence from a king to his officials to investigate complaints made by two men about the killing of women for being witches and theft of her property, and an allegation against a Buddhist monk and his household for using witchcraft and poison against the monk’s younger brother. To be a witch and to practice witchcraft was unlawful and a punishable offence, but false accusations required compensation for the aggrieved party, with the threat of future punishments as a deterrent for raising complaints again. But it is not immediately clear why people were accused in the first place. How were witches identified? Which practices constituted witchcraft? Why did people make false accusations, kill women, or use ‘witchcraft’ against others? This article examines four documents that summarise the complaints made by the different men. It defines and contextualises the key vocabulary used to describe witches, witchcraft, and poison. Other documents are investigated that possibly name some of the complainants, the accused, and other people mentioned in the cases to understand their characters and why they may have attracted accusations or been targeted by members of the community. The article then explores texts, literature, legal cases, and studies from other parts of the ancient and modern world to suggest reasons for accusing people of being witches or using witchcraft, targeting people via association with accused witches, and why people may have used practices associated with witchcraft, such as poison, against other people. It further explores if accusations could be connected to gender and why. The cases suggest that ritual and social othering, envy, status, personal rivalries, domestic and community conflicts, and conflict over resources were some of the possible reasons for accusations. Shaming and emasculating influential men through false accusations and targeting women under their guardianship suggests that gender was an important factor in accusations. Likewise, attempts to restrict women socially, economically, and ritually could have been a key reason why only women were accused of being witches and subject to punishment, whereas men accused of using witchcraft escaped punishment due to their status. Corruption and abuse of power were behind some accusations and delayed justice.